Bullying is a problem that threatens the well-being of children and adolescents across the world; estimates are that up to 50% of children are perpetrators or victims. Numerous school shootings recently have been linked to bullying. Bullying has been defined in many ways, and there is some disagreement about what behaviors constitute bullying. The most widely used definition, provided by Olweus, a leading researcher, states that people are bullied when they are repeatedly exposed to negative actions from others. Olweus proposed three key components of bullying: intent to harm another person, behavior repeated over time, and imbalance in power between the bully and victim. This definition includes behaviors as diverse as physical abuse, threats of harm, teasing, social exclusion, spreading rumors, damage of property, and theft. Some believe that an imbalance of power need not be present. However, others suggest physical, psychological, or social power differences must exist to constitute bullying. Other definitions state that bullying may be conducted for the purpose of displaying dominance.
从历史上看,大多数关注一直集中在直接形式的欺凌形式上,包括公开的身体和言语侵略。直接的身体欺凌包括击中,踢脚以及推动和性侵略等行为,例如触摸,捏和摸索。直接的言语欺凌包括诸如呼唤,戏弄和伤害威胁之类的行为。已经确定了其他形式的欺凌形式,包括使用恐吓;基于种族,种族,文化,外观或能力的欺凌;和性骚扰或使用性参考使某人感到不舒服。通常,儿童既是受害者,也是欺凌的肇事者。
Recently, much attention has been given to indirect forms of bullying, which are sometimes referred to as social or relational bullying. This type of bullying is more covert in nature and often has the goal of damaging the victim’s social relationships or reputation. Relational bullying includes behaviors such as spreading rumors, social exclusion, friendship manipulation, and gossiping.
Gender Differences in Bullying
男孩和女孩使用和对欺凌的反应之间发现了差异。传统上,欺凌被认为更像是男性现象,欺凌在男性中更为普遍。这种欺凌本质上是直接的。它包括身体攻击或袭击威胁。最近,研究人员发现女孩同样参与欺凌行为,但是她们倾向于使用更间接的侵略手段,例如关系欺凌。这导致了男孩欺凌(指直接侵略)和女孩欺凌(间接侵略)术语。然而,看来欺凌的性别形式之间的区别比预先想象的要复杂。尽管研究支持男孩比女孩更直接形式的欺凌形式的概念,但最近的研究发现,男孩和女孩在间接欺凌中表现出同等的参与,但他们对此的反应也有所不同。更具体地说,一些研究人员认为,间接形式的欺凌形式似乎对女孩有害,而不是对男孩。
欺凌的患病率
在全球范围内,欺凌行为似乎很高,普通患病率从11%到50%的学童。在北美,欧洲和亚洲的许多国家 /地区都对欺凌行为进行了评估。大多数国家报告说,参与欺凌的学生中有10%至20%的患病率估计。在美国,欺凌行为的普遍性是世界上最高的欺凌行为之一。大多数估计是参与所有美国学童的20%至30%。但是,这些速度可能低估了由于学生报道不足而导致的欺凌行为的实际流行,排除关系欺凌以及对教师和父母在学校中欺凌的程度不认识。城市和农村地区之间可能存在流行差异。在小型或农村学校中有关欺凌的最新研究报告说,欺凌率更高,有80%的学生报告参与欺凌。欺凌已被证明早在幼儿几年就开始了,并且在中学时就会增加。欺凌行为在初中时趋于达到顶峰,然后在整个高中逐渐下降。
欺凌的结果
Bullying has been associated with a number of adverse outcomes for both the bully and the victim. More specifically, bullying has been shown to affect psychosocial well-being, academic achievement, and physical健康。一些长期结局也与欺凌有关。
受害者
受害者experience problems with depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, aggression, relationship problems, social isolation, loneliness, substance abuse, psychosomatic symptoms, and even suicide. In terms of academics, victims of bullying exhibit school refusal behavior (contributing to frequent school absences), dislike of school, reduced participation in school activities, and lower academic achievement than nonbullied peers. Children who are frequent victims of bullying may also report more headaches, stomachaches, and other somatic complaints, which could lead to greater healthcare utilization and costs. Long-term outcomes of being victimized include continued depression and anxiety as well as relationship problems.
恶霸
恶霸exhibit many externalizing problems, including aggression, antisocial behavior, conduct problems, delinquency, substance use, and early sexual experiences. They have also been shown to experience internalizing problems, such as anxiety and depression. Some bullies experience victimization, negative reputations, and difficulties with peer relationships. Academic outcomes associated with bullies include truancy, low academic achievement, and dropping out of school. Long-term consequences of bullying may include sustained antisocial behavior, abuse, domestic violence, substance abuse, and trouble with authorities.
Bullying Treatment and Prevention Programs
已经制定了许多预防和治疗计划来解决学校欺凌。总体而言,研究表现出适度但始终如一的积极影响。
The Olweus Bully Program
Olweus Bully计划是一项全面的,全面的计划,旨在减少和防止学童中的欺凌问题。该计划的次要目的是改善学校的同伴关系。该计划可以与小学,中学或初中的孩子一起使用。Olweus计划已被证明可以有效减少欺凌,改善学校内部的社会氛围,并减少反社会行为。该计划已在全球多个国家成功实施。
Olweus Bully计划旨在通过重组学校环境和干预三个层次:学校,教室和个人来减少欺凌行为。该计划致力于使学校成为所有学生的安全学习环境,并减少与受害者和恶霸有关的负面影响。该计划的一些关键方面包括通过管理Olweus Bully/受害者问卷来确定欺凌者和受害者关于欺凌和同伴关系,班级父母会议以及与被确定为欺凌者或受害者及其父母的人的个人工作。教育工作者接受了与个人合作的培训,以减少已知是欺凌风险因素的某些行为。这些危险因素包括冲动性,主导性格,缺乏同理心,遵循规则的困难,低于挫败感的容忍度,对暴力的积极态度以及对学校的兴趣降低。Olweus Bully计划还试图干预具有知道危险因素的学生,例如有对暴力的积极态度,缺乏父母的温暖和参与,过于允许的育儿,严厉的纪律,缺乏父母监督以及学校态度对欺凌行为无动于衷或接受。对该计划的结果研究表明,将欺凌行为降低了33%至64%。
尊重计划的步骤
尊重计划的步骤是针对小学生的欺凌计划,试图通过欺凌预防来创造安全和尊重的学校气候。鼓励教育者,学生和家庭减少在学校范围内欺凌的问题。该计划的主要目标是增加亲社会的信念和行为,增加个人对欺凌的责任(包括旁观者有干预的责任),以了解侵略是一条不可接受的权力途径,并增加了与同伴和成人的机会功能和情感支持。
There are three phases to this program. The first phase involves getting the school to commit to the program through developing a bullying prevention steering team to create bullying policies and consequences for bullying behavior. The second phase involves training the staff to recognize bullying and effectively deal with its occurrence. Families are also educated about the program at this time. The third phase involves implementing the program by having educators deliver skill lessons to children, helping children learn and practice bullying prevention skills, and teaching prosocial skills. Throughout this instruction, children should learn how to recognize, refuse, and report bullying.
参考:
- American Psychological Association. (2006). Bullying. Retrieved fromhttp://www.apa.org/topics/bullying/index.aspx
- Committee for Children. (2006). Bullying Prevention Unit. Retrieved fromhttp://www.cfchildren.org/bullying-prevention
- 家庭和邻里生活学院。(2003)。Olweus欺凌预防计划。从...获得http://olweus.sites.clemson.edu/
- Olweus,D。(1978)。学校的侵略:欺凌和鞭打男孩。华盛顿特区:半球出版社。
- Olweus,D。(1991)。学童中的欺负/受害者问题:基于学校干预计划的基本事实和影响。在D. Pepler&K。Rubin(编辑)中,儿童侵略的发展和治疗(第411-148页)。新泽西州希尔斯代尔:劳伦斯·埃尔鲍姆(Lawrence Erlbaum)。
- Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
- Olweus,D。和Limber,S。(1999)。预防暴力的蓝图:预防欺凌计划。博尔德:科罗拉多大学博尔德分校行为科学研究所。
- Prinstein, M. J., Boergers, J., & Vernberg, E. M. (2001). Overt and relational aggression in adolescents: Social-psychological adjustment of aggressors and victims. Journal of Clinical Child心理学,30,479-191。