阅读障碍是一个有争议的术语,最常用来描述尽管有教学的态度,但他们仍无法快速,轻松或良好地学习阅读的学习者。从历史上看,阅读障碍被认为是永久性的认知缺陷,有时被描述为脑损伤,最小的脑功能障碍或先天性单词失明。目前,阅读障碍被视为一种特定的学习障碍,该标签允许学生接受特殊教育服务。父母和老师有时会在学生挣扎阅读时随意使用这个术语。然而,有趣的新兴研究表明,大多数有阅读延迟的儿童没有大脑损坏,也没有读书障碍。取而代之的是,引人入胜的荟萃分析的阅读研究表明,大多数具有正常智力和动力的年轻学习者可以学会阅读足够正确的开始阅读教学,特别是在音素意识和语音方面的系统指导。因此,在大多数情况下,阅读障碍并非被视为不变的病理性脑疾病,而是可以通过适当的指导克服的阅读延迟。根据专家,研究和所使用的评估工具的不同,读障碍的估计发病率从1%到20%,监狱人口中的40%至70%。阅读困难的青少年和成年人似乎存在极端的处理问题,并且对治疗具有最大的抵抗力。
具体的技能缺陷和教学需求
Delayed readers commonly demonstrate core problems with both phonemic awareness (auditory discrimination of the individual sounds in spoken words) and phonics (sound/symbol correspondences). Typically, a poor reader will hear a spoken word, such as猫,作为一种声音,将缺乏意识到它实际上是由三种单独的声音(或音素)组成的: /k / /a / /t /。不幸的是,当学习者缺乏音素意识技能(包括声音细分,押韵,口头混合和其他技能)时,他们不太可能从正式的阅读教学中受益。幼儿园,幼儿园和1年级和2年级的老师以及有阅读延迟的儿童的老师应通过单词播放,敲击活动,音节分析游戏,押韵活动以及使用定义的故事,诗歌,诗歌,诗歌,颂歌来教授语音意识和歌曲。阅读障碍的学生通常需要额外的练习来掌握音素意识技能。行为和遗传研究表明,具有语音缺陷的趋势是可遗传的。
In addition to deficits in phonemic awareness, dyslexics typically demonstrate catastrophically inadequate knowledge of phonics. Instead of sounding out words, dyslexics memorize words as a whole and guess at meanings from pictures or contextual clues. The most effective method of reading instruction, especially for children with dyslexia, is direct instruction in phonics, not implicit, or discovery methods. Primary grade teachers and reading specialists are advised to provide explicit, sequential, multisensory, fun phonics instruction based on assessment of student needs. Dictation activities, responsive student vocalization, related readings in decodable text, and an encouraging setting are recommended. Phonics experts suggest that phonics instruction be tailored and delivered to homogeneous, not heterogeneous, achievement groups in order to match instructional content to the needs of the learners. Phonemic awareness and phonics lessons are not to constitute the totality of a literacy program, of course. These vital foci are to be integrated with rich exposure to shared literature to develop student motivation, writing practice, and lessons to develop fluency, vocabulary growth, and reading comprehension.
Early Intervention And Tutoring
如果学习者在一年级的开始并接受精心量身定制的,尤其是小组教学,个性化的教学或在音素意识和语音方面进行辅导,则最有可能获得重要的阅读能力。大多数学区合同要求课堂老师为其所有课程的所有成员提供适当的阅读指导。但是,实际上,滞后的读者通常不会从普通的课堂老师那里获得个性化的指导。一些学校要求一个孩子失败阅读以重复成绩。如果该策略失败,则可能会转介儿童接受特殊教育。遗憾的是,很少有普通的教育老师有时间,培训或资源为落后于同学的学生提供特殊课程。每年都会促进许多阅读障碍药,因为他们试图跟随阅读指导,越来越超出其成就水平。一些小学在阅读时间内化,使教师能够更有效地满足不同水平的学习者的需求。可以通过招募和培训社区成员提供干预服务:退休人员,高中或大学志愿者,专业人士,学生老师,跨年龄的导师,父母或其他亲戚。正确选择的计算机软件程序还可以提供有效的练习,以发展音素意识,语音和其他开始阅读技能。 All readers, but especially older delayed readers, need high-interest decodable text in order to practice their emerging reading skills. If students with dyslexia do not encounter targeted, systematic phonemic awareness and phonics instruction in the early years, they tend to fall farther behind academically and often require special education services. They can experience lifelong deficits in achievement and self-esteem.
脑研究和阅读障碍
Exciting new brain studies using noninvasive functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allow reading researchers to measure and record the levels of blood oxygenation in the areas of active brain tissue during the process of reading. Dyslexics have been shown to demonstrate a neural signature or pattern of brain activity in the front of the brain, with some inefficient compensatory activation in other areas, while nonimpaired readers show activation patterns mainly in the back of the left side of the brain, in the temporoparietal cortex, where the brain analyzes phonological information and processes words for instant recognition. In addition, the latest fMRI studies demonstrate how phonemic awareness and phonics instruction create new neural pathways and actual modifications in dyslexics’ brain functioning, while the lack of appropriate instruction seems to cause a deficiency of localized brain functioning and poor reading skill attainment. We now know that students with dyslexia can develop left-side neural networks following effective reading intervention. This line of research shows clearly that targeted instruction works, that the brains of young children with dyslexia can essentially be rewired to function like those of good readers. The fMRI studies indicate that reading problems occur equally among girls and boys, even though boys are more likely to be identified in school, possibly because they are more likely to exhibit behavior that conflicts with social norms.
The Letter Reversal Myth
常见的误解是,阅读障碍的学生实际上会看到信件逆转。研究表明,贫穷的读者和经验不足的作家通常会在写作中逆转,但没有证据表明字母字母在视觉上看上去对这些学生有逆转。写作逆转和命名错误似乎是学习不良的文物。阅读障碍只是没有开发出必要的神经生物学途径,即当他们难以将书面代码转换为口头代码时,才能理解印刷语言。
争议
关于阅读障碍的讨论可以激发阅读界的尖锐辩论。有些人认为阅读障碍本质上是一个毫无意义的术语,具有不幸的病理含义,将普通的贫穷读者描绘成“残疾”。一些学者抱怨着无效的视觉单词和全语言阅读方法,要归咎于大量有阅读问题的学生。他们声称,阅读分数下降和剧烈的阅读障碍统计是数十年来数十年来象牙塔中传下来的数十年错误的教师教育实践的结果。立法者和政策越来越避免使用D字。取而代之的是,他们赞成诸如“有阅读失败风险的学生”之类的措辞,并断言大多数阅读障碍是可以预防的,并且阅读困难的学生只需要更加专注,越来越多地包装,越来越多地包装,防而教师,脚本脚本。
Many experienced classroom teachers, reading specialists, and resource teachers view dyslexia as a learning disorder that properly entitles students to extra instructional time and expert professional remediation. They decry one-size-fits-all legislation and point to a tradition of individualized service in special education. They recommend fair eligibility guidelines, attention to individual assessments, and carefully targeted needs-based teaching. These clinicians point out that few classroom teachers beyond the primary grades have the resources or time to go back and provide intervention for students with dyslexia. With or without the label, students with reading difficulties will continue to need the best services of well-prepared, caring, knowledgeable reading professionals, parents, and policy makers.
参考:
- 亚当斯(1990)。开始阅读:思考和学习印刷。剑桥:麻省理工学院出版社。
- Blevins, W. (1998). Phonics from A to New York: Scholastic Professional Books.
- International Dyslexia Association,http://www.interdys.org
- Lyon, R. (1995). Toward a definition of dyslexia. Annals ofDyslexia, 45, 3–27.
- 国家儿童学院健康和Human Dev(2000)。国家阅读小组的报告。教孩子阅读:基于证据的评估阅读科学研究及其对阅读教学的影响。取自http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.htm
- Partnership for (n.d.). Put reading first: The research building blocks for teaching children to read, kindergarten through grade 3. Retrieved from http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/reading_first1.html
- Shaywitz, S. (1996, November). Dyslexia. Scientific American,98–104.
- Shaywitz, (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading problems at any level. New York: Knopf.